Revisions of Coopers Model Essay Example

Revisions of Coopers Model Essay Over the years, several revisions have been made to Coopers original model. These are; Cooper and Baglioni (1988), and Robertson, Cooper and Williams (1990). The home/work interface aspect of the model was originally part of the individual differences section, but in 1988, this was incorporated as a sixth source of stress. The reason behind this was the increasing recognition that demands and conflicts from work could act as potential sources of stress at home and could also be transferred and influence work-related well-being. Also, in 1990, Robertson et al introduced coping strategies into the model as another aspect of individual differences. Although there are several features of the work environment, which have been associated with stress, Cooper and Marshall (1976) developed one of the earliest classifications which is still widely used today (Newell 1995). Criticisms Claire Harris (1998) criticizes Coopers model as describing a model of organizational stress rather than occupational stress. She argued that it was vague in relation to particular types of job-related stress. This is evident from the sources of stress, with only those intrinsic to job being occupational stresses and the rest being generic to organizations rather than occupations. Several researchers including Cooper have noticed this problem and have used the measurement of stressors for the particular occupation under study. Cooper and Bramwell (1992) for example, assessed mental health satisfaction and sickness absence from looking at a group of managers and shop floor workers. We will write a custom essay sample on Revisions of Coopers Model specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Revisions of Coopers Model specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Revisions of Coopers Model specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Another criticism with this model is its simplistic left to right characterization of the stress process. In Lazarus Folkmans (1986) transactional model of stress, the extent to which a stressor in the environment results in strain outcomes depends on the interaction between the individual and their environment. The model also includes feedback loops which are not accounted for in Coopers model. Coopers model has also been criticized because it fails to show how individual differences relate to other parts of the model. Coopers model fails to account for organizational characteristics as moderators of the stressor strain relationship and does not indicate whether coping and personality have direct influences on stress outcomes or if they are combined to have an interactive influence. Although Cooper has incorporated individual differences in the model, further evidence is required to establish whether or not these differences have a direct effect or moderate strain outcomes. In addition to these criticisms, Coopers model does not account for other well known researched individual differences such as neuroticism (relating to well-being) and less researched factors such as extroversion and competence (Warr 1987). Conclusions Coopers 1986 model of work-related stress describes the main features of an individuals work and also of his/her home environment. He describes these in the Model of Stress at Work.  Although Coopers model is simplistic, it does give a general overview of how stress can influence an individuals relationships at work and at home.  It could be argued that Coopers model only concentrates on organizational stressors i.e. organizational structure, relationships at work, or career development. That being said, he mentions the feature of intrinsic to job, which is in fact related to occupational stress. Coopers model is still widely use today in the field of occupational psychology, but further revisions need to be made which describe the individuals coping strategies and personality, as they play a major role in the workplace with regards to a persons health. Further research also needs to be conducted on existing data and then it needs to be analysed directly with the H.S.E. References i)Brown et al 1999 Police Stress. ii)Claire Harris Msc Thesis (1998). iii)Daniels et al 2002 Stress Risk Report. iv)Jordan et al 2003 Practice stress in management. v)Parkes and Sparkes 1998 Organisational Stress Interventions.

Architecture and Burials in the Maya and Aztec essays

Architecture and Burials in the Maya and Aztec essays Plundering and carnage were the overlying results of the Spanish conquest of MesoAmerica beginning in 1519. The ensuing years brought many new "visitors," mostly laymen or officials in search of wealth, though the Christianity toting priest was ever present. Occasionally a man from any of these classes, though mainly priests would be so in awe of the civilization they were single handedly massacring that they began to observe and document things such as everyday life, religious rituals, economic goings on, and architecture, which was the biggest achievement in the eyes of the Spaniards. That is how the accounts of Friar Diego de Landa, a priest, were created, giving us rare first per-son historical accounts of the conquest and the people it effected. To archaeologists monumental architecture is more important than an inscribed stelae listing names and dates. There is so much more to learn from a building than a slab of stone usually seething with propaganda. In most societies they are what remains after conquest, usually for their beauty or ability to withstand the elements. Landa was amazed by what he found. "There are in Yucatan many edifices of great beauty, this be-ing the most outstanding of all things discovered in the Indies; they are all build of stone finely ornamented..." (Landa, 8). If it were a commoners domestic dwelling we would learn through the study of remaining artifacts and middens what objects were used on a daily basis and also the standard of living, helping us to construct an accurate view of the long neglected commoner. According to Landa steepled roofs covered with thatch or palm leaves protected the habitat from rain. Homes were often divided into two sections, a living section, customarily whit ewashed, and a domestic area where food was prepared and inhabitants slept (Landa, 32). In Aztec societies commoners often lived in calpolli, a residential area segregated by occupation, usually surrounde...

IS INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS RESEARCH SCIENTIFIC AND OBJECTIVEEXPLAIN Essay

IS INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS RESEARCH SCIENTIFIC AND OBJECTIVEEXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER - Essay Example Moreover, the ongoing debate regarding the true nature of IR research will be discussed, as well as the theoretical formulation of positivism in international affairs. Scientific method implies constructing theories explicitly, obtaining sensibly consistent propositions from those theories, and methodically verifying those propositions through controlled assessments of cases. Hence, the scientific paradigm is concerned with identifying underlying or causal descriptions and with determining how well the recommended causal description forecasts trends across studies (Boucher 1998). Most fundamental attributes of the scientific approach, evidently, are not dissimilar in the field of social sciences from other disciplines, even though laboratory or controlled experiments are evidently awkward in social research (Crawford 2000). There is certainly nothing about in research in international relations that renders it oddly incompatible with scientific method (Navari 2000). Scientific approach obliges merely a few critical requirements on IR research. Nevertheless, researches in international affairs that are relatively founded on the scientific approach progress from a diversity of theoretical and substantive frameworks. The most recognised, numerous would argue only justifiable, challenger for the position of science and objectivity in IR is positivism, relating the conditions of knowledge directly to method, verifiability, and generality (Woods 1996). In a paradoxical distortion of the conservative positivist scorn for the simply analytic explanations of the political principle they aim to surpass, IR attains it scientific qualities more by characterisation than by demonstration. If the discipline keeps any apparent functionality it is a capability in explaining and sharpening the assumptions of positivist science (Cassels 1996). International relations research

Response to quiz questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Response to quiz questions - Assignment Example As well, the signifier and the sign are continuously being used in our modern culture nowadays. Thus, the semiotic method can be used to examine popular culture by inquiring about the sign. The signs direct us to ask queries about its fundamental meaning, hence steering our attention to the system the sign fits and search for related signs that back up our primary hypothesis. Since all is connected, signs hint to one another thus enabling one to view the broad picture and how our culture is affected by them. In the American culture, vampires are so popular since they represent a sense of individuality, immorality, youth, eroticism and an outlaw hero. Thus, the semiotics assists us understand how vampires of in the present day are so popular (Maasik, and Solomon, 2). Typical stories at the origin of our life experience are termed as Myths. Additionally, myths are present in all literatures and cultures. However, myths are true stories founded on facts since all of us lives them at some level. In addition, myths connect and speaks to all of us. Some myths are true stories that achieve mythic importance since individuals involved appear superior to life and live their lives more forcefully than ordinary people. While others rotate around make-believe characters who have the potential of capsulizing for us our entire journeys. Additionally, some behaviours depicted by the make-believe might seem similar to characters we encountered in our dreams (Braumoeller, 23). In many hero stories, the hero is usually presented under ordinary circumstances, in a rational world doing ordinary things. Usually, the hero originates as a non-hero looking humble, young and simple however in the course of the story something different enters the hero’s life thus acting as a catalyser setting the story into motion. In many occasions, the hero is not willing to leave, thus termed as a reluctant hero who is uncertain,

Values Of Nationalism In Pakistan

Values Of Nationalism In Pakistan The ideology of nationalism has been defined as a feeling of belonging among the individuals of a nation and it is based on the religion, language, and ethnic origins. In Pakistan, the ideology of nationalism was first initiated with Islam as single religion. The Muslim of India was unified on the basis of religion to create a single national identity (Haqqani, 2005)Â  [1]Â  . However, nationalism can also be defined as feeling among group that is reawakened by modernity (Adeel, 2005)Â  [2]Â  , thus nationalism in Pakistan is a result of struggle to have separate identification from the Hindus in the region of sub-continent Asia. Since the creation of Pakistan, nationalism is related to expression of historical, cultural, religious, linguistic and political values which is further elaborated as showing pride in the historical culture, heritage and identity of Pakistan that also helps to formulate future vision of Pakistan. Problem with Nationalism in Pakistan Since its establishment, Pakistan has faced different difficulties and nationalism with concern to identity has been the most problematic national issue for Pakistan. Pakistan, being born from the old division of Indian civilization, has been struggling to construct its culture which gives it different identity, not much different from Indian culture but at the same time must be recognized as different by the world (Jaffrelot, 2002)Â  [3]Â  . After more than half century, nationalism in Pakistan has two faces or in other words there are two levels of values of nationalism exist. At first, there is nationalism which forms all Pakistani as one nation and according to that all Pakistanis possess one nationality and are citizen of Pakistan; similarly it is observed that government and media in Pakistan continuously attempts to prevail the value for nationalism among the citizen by showing threaten from India (Jaffrelot, 2002). Conversely, for more than five decades, it has been observe d that nationalism in Pakistan is disintegrated on the basis of linguistic, ethnicity and region. To Jaffrelot (2002), nationalism is an ideology which combines the people into a group and this formation occurs as a result of territorial, ethnic and social construction rather than on the basis of religion or language. Thus this definition excludes the linguistic group and religious communities. Pakistan, on the other hand, appears to be an unachieved nation on account of ethnic identities they have. Pakistan with disintegrated nation has been going through different problems. No matter what the nature of the problems is, media has long been playing its role in the creation of values of nationalism in Pakistan. This paper intends to examine the role of media in the creation of nationalistic value in Pakistan with especial reference to media as strong source or tool for creating the values of nationalism. Pakistani Media and Nationalism With the disruptive nationalist ideologies in the period of globalization, present nationalism is significantly different from the ideology of nationalism in nineteenth and early twentieth century. Today, it is seen that nationalism is impacted and increased by the mutual incompatibility between local as well as global world. However, nationalism has its deep root in diverse political, and cultures while different national trends impacts the way of media and journalists choose to demonstrate the news stories about national collective identities and the national interests. It is considered that national welfare development impacts the news coverage criteria towards a less narrow-minded and more responsible attitude on the part of the press. The role of mass media, since 1960s with the ideological state equipment, was able to organize the social image more concentrating on the ideology of national identity and national interest. Since national integrity and solidity have been core national issues of Pakistan, and press media has been rather active in analyzing these problem through generating the public awareness than electronic media. In Pakistan electronic media has long been missing its place to make significant influence to create national values. According to Price (1995)Â  [4]Â  , organized activity of media for social imagery was achieved by different controlling policies and it has directed to considerable and firm construction of consent in the name of the population within a nationality and nation state. The consent is taken from the symbolic and imaginary way of we and them, and it is implemented by the media event and the selection criteria of news and its presentation. To Dayan and Katz (1992)Â  [5]Â  , this consent is more prominent when it is about foreign policy issues and the international relations of a nation state. Gans (1979)Â  [6]Â  contends that nation is presented as a unified e ntity through TV news which is framed into anthropomorphic term. In addition, ethnocentrism is considered as one of the main journalistic values through which TV news is selected and presented. In the same way, since Pakistan has long been ally with the US state government and after 9/11 attacks the news coverage by electronic media in Pakistan had followed the international relation policy of Pakistani government through which Pakistani media showed sympathy with the people and citizen of the US (PÅ‚udowski, 2007)Â  [7]Â  . Generally people consider mass media as mean of determining the knowledge level and information about the national and international alliances, political players and foreign policy; similarly, news coverage both by press and electronic media also gives the geopolitical image of a country. For many decades nationalist movement was based on the typography and according to McLuhan (1987)Â  [8]Â  printed word make it possible to give the rise of national languages, producing common way of communication, and, as a result of it they have view of a common destiny. Urdu press in Pakistan, on the other hand, has been most careless and irresponsible in the world as it has always been indulge in promoting such conspiracy theories that could be harmful for the union of all provinces and its national image inside and outside the country. As discussed above that language communication is more powerful than picture communication with the view to have intimacy with the people using common language , Pakistani Urdu press media is deteriorating the national values by relying on the propaganda and prejudice views. However, here it is not significant to overview if the word of truth is promoted but more importantly that the news content is not relevant to promote the values of nationalism in the country (Gupta, 1999)Â  [9]Â  . However, the role of media with nationalism can also be observed in the time of war especially with reference to radio. Radio through broadcasting spreads the common words of fear and hate towards the other nations. Bias nationalism affects the selection as well as presentation of news stories and eventually results in outburst of nationalist mobilizations. The role of radio in Pakistan has similarly been motivated to promote the national values by the war threat from India in 1965 (Ali, 1995)Â  [10]Â  . Similar to theoretical concept about the role of radio with the context of creating the values of nationalism; radio in Pakistan is now less active is promoting integrated national values. Radio during the separation of East Pakistan from the West Wing had been remarkably positive and active in promoting integration between both wings on the other hand, radio in Bengal was active in disintegration of Bengal from the West Pakistan (Ghulam Kabir, 1994)Â  [11]Â  . Nationalism and Pakistani Media in the Era of Globalization Present nationalism is not the result of reemergence of past but rather integral and self-reliant. The ideology of nationalism is different from the ideology that existed in ninetieth and twentieth century. Nowadays, nationalism ideology is more influenced by the global trends. However, the process of globalization occurs both on the level of systemic integration and on the level of social integration. Systemic integration refers to economy, technology, and communications; on the other hand, social integration is life-world. The process of globalization takes place in a very systematic way and occurs from place to place. Thus, in modern period ideology of nationalism is taken into account as local reaction of political system and mutual identities to different number of national welfare development (Robins, 1991)Â  [12]Â  . New era of popular electronic media is Pakistan is more like autonomous body especially electronic media which seems to find different ways through which public of Pakistan is making a successful transition to a democracy. However, values of nationalism in Pakistan is complicated with the view of having multi-linguistic and ethnic population (Akbar, 1998)Â  [13]Â  but this complication is also related with lack of democracy in Pakistan and impartial judicial process which can remarkably overcome the disintegration (Akhtar, 2000)Â  [14]Â  . Pakistani media now seems to have role of watch-dog while holding the politicians and making them accountable and keeping the public informed of the situation. As far as role of television is concerned historically one of the evidence of media influence on the nationalism was observed in the late century when nationalist mobilization occurs owing to effects of TV pictures and power of media to construct the imaginary national community. According to Meyrowitz (1985)Â  [15]Â  , the presentation and directness of TV pictures allows focusing on the local event to change into event of national and international interest. The effectiveness of media impact in the creation of nationalism is not measured yet but TV has been observed effective for spreading a word at a distance. In last few years electronic media in Pakistan has grown well with the inception of private news channels and radio channels; therefore now media is much free but less responsible in terms of bearing the responsibility towards creating the values for nationalism in the country. Even though if it is assumed that electronic media in Pakistan is not effective or playing role to promote national values to integrate the country, yet Pakistani media has deep effect on the popular consciousness (Jaffrelot, 2002). To assess the historical role of television in Pakistan it is significant to overview the effectiveness of television in the creation of national values. Television with the coordination of demand and aims distant plays an important tool which forms the practical narrative and also creates group identity. Television is very friendly tool when it is used to address national minorities (Smith, 1990)Â  [16]Â  . Here it is essential to mention that current nationalism or previous nationalism is not the result of media communication but media has been used as such structure that aids to find the origination and development. However, once nationalism is created as on political ideologies, it can be effective or manipulative for media. Pakistan television which is government entity failed to maintain that integrity and promote the nationalism on account of government influence on the coverage of news (Asian Media Information and Communication Centre, 2000)Â  [17]Â  . To Altheide (1979)Â  [18]Â  , there could be two different trends in relation to nationalism or national identification and media. At first it is excess or fast moving changing picture and images, this is the result of logic behind the concept of television. The commercialization in TV forms nations identification the nation with indefinite, sporadic, and sometimes insecure identification. White (1992)Â  [19]Â  justifies it as citizen-viewers are with interrupted views and actions and usually have contradiction views. Thus, national dominancy over the social imagery is changed with diverse similarities. The last century (quarter of the twentieth century) is witness of the situation and was resulted as broadcasting deregulation and globalization of information and economy (Lash, 1994)Â  [20]Â  . Bauman (1993)Â  [21]Â  explains that it helps to promote the sense of co-belonging and also affects other mutual identity that is likely to conceal neotribalism. The relationship betwe en nationalism and media is affected by both materially and conceptually and it is changing and shifting cultural, political and economic configuration (Schlesinger, 1991)Â  [22]Â  . Therefore, nowadays nationalism ideology has become a mediatized and it is used through TV which through narrative language leads to change in understanding and views of an individual towards national identity and feelings of nationalism. To Luke (1995)Â  [23]Â  , nationalism is nowadays related to and reproduced as part of real life and more associated with the national identity. Similarly, there is another trend related to globalization of communication; since globalization of communication has directed the world towards limited cultural difference and viewers usually find it easy to maintain the nationalism and make selective interpretation of international message. According to Negrine and Papathanassopoulos (1990)Â  [24]Â  , paper and electronic media maintains their national integrity and in terest and this orientation is observed by the news presentation especially international news. Pakistan has been observing new era of modern communication in the country and local news channels within the country are more concerned about the national issues. Both electronic and press media in Pakistan is more focusing on the future of Pakistan as independent nation with different identity in the world. However, media in Pakistan is considered as effective entity with the perception to show the culture of Pakistan to the world and get them identified as separate nation. The news coverage of national issue, on one hand, is likely to support the national interest of the country, on the other hand national government and politics are more criticized by news channels. With such combination television in Pakistan is politicized and looks rather defocused on promoting the national integrity and national identification. As far as foreign policy is concerned the news media apply distinctive influence on the audience with the use of language and images. Since there is little contributio n of television in Pakistan as a result of limited personal experience and involvement in the issues the news presentation is commonly like cycle with popular expectations cultivated by national stereotypes especially in the time of nationalist enthusiasm.

Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory and the CSI Effect on Jurors Essay

The Maricopa County Attorney’s Office presented a study in 2005 in which it examined the impact of the so-called â€Å"CSI effect† to its jurors. The data was gathered by means of surveying prosecutors who had jury trial experience, and from there, the study assessed the samples’ perceptions as to whether the â€Å"CSI effect† had played a part in the decision of some juries. Interestingly, although the â€Å"CSI effect† may be deemed an unlikely factor, the study showed that the â€Å"CSI effect† is real and may affect jury behavior (Maricopa County Attorney’s Office, 2005). Television watching, as some media theories have discussed, can create a psychological impact to its viewers especially as it can inevitably serve as an educational source; however, the problem lies in what television can actually teach (Condry, 1989). The presence of the â€Å"CSI effect† in justice and legal systems can be deemed significant especially as to how this may affect the judgment of the members of the jury. The idea that certain television genres, especially along the lines of the highly popular crime drama Crime Scene Investigation (CSI), can affect certain trial outcomes may seem outrageous, but the â€Å"CSI effect† has been established as a ground that connects the real-life justice and legal systems and products of media and entertainment (Smith, Patry and Stinson, 2008; Stevens, 2008; Mardis, 2006). As the effectiveness of the justice system also relies on the effectiveness of its jurors, the impact of the media and entertainment products towards people in this context may be deemed problematic (Stevens, 2008). This is why it is important to evaluate the impact of the â€Å"CSI effect† because of its implications thereby highlighting the relationship between the law and mass communications. The term â€Å"CSI effect† is based on the popular television show Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) and other shows that present the following basic premise: the ability of an (fictional) authoritative group in crime and justice that can expose the truth based on their systematic and sophisticated processes. However, since these shows are made for televisions, it is inevitable that these processes are glamorized and may not be realistic at all. The â€Å"CSI effect† therefore pertains to the influence of such television programs to the perceptions and behavior of the people, especially in relation to the justice and legal systems (Smith, Patry and Stinson, 2008). Stevens (2008) further explains that the â€Å"CSI effect† is based on fictionalized accounts as to what forensic science can do but, due to the twisted conceptions of reality of some viewers, there is the inescapable belief that these components of the shows are something happens in real life. Among the media and communication theories that can serve as fundamental framework of this assessment is Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory. The theory suggests that information sources such as television contribute to the cultivation of the individual and the social environment; therefore, conceptions of reality are formed (Gerbner & Gross, 1976; Gerbner, 1998). This theory can then be based on the concept that stories, as projected, tends to reflect a certain extent of reality, therefore, they animate a society’s cultural environment. As Gerbner (1999, ix) explained the functions of stories, they â€Å"illuminate the all-important but invisible relationships and hidden dynamics of life†; as these stories represent a degree of shared beliefs, the cultivation of these tales and representations therefore create a significant input to the perceived reality of individuals. The Cultivation Theory is also further supported by several studies conducted by Gerber and his colleagues with a focus on the impact of television to real world perceptions. This brings an interesting premise as the projected reality is based on fictional work; the impact of the cultivation thereby leads to behavioral effects. Television shows, as Gerbner (1998) pointed out, are important marketing tools that have affected not only the people’s perceptions but also their identity and expectations from the society. The validity of television can be based on its function, being a source of information and spectacle representing the shared images and history across many societies (Gerbner, 1998). This paper therefore aims to evaluate the relationship of Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory with the â€Å"CSI effect†, especially as to how this has affected and may affect juror perceptions and judgments. This study addresses this thesis by conducting a review of a series of related literatures that are deemed integral to a better and cohesive understanding between this phenomenon and the theory of cultivation. The findings and implications discuss the degree of impact of the â€Å"CSI effect† and whether this is something that the justice system should seriously consider and devote effort to. Furthermore, approaches towards the Cultivation Theory are also addressed especially in terms of its applicability to the â€Å"CSI effect† and juror behavior. The study then concludes with an analysis on how the findings may actually help in the formulation of a more effective jury screening process. Review of Literature Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory, the Media, and the Television A series of studies conducted by Gerbner and his colleagues tackled the effect of the television and its contribution to the formation of reality among its viewers which are, interestingly, found to be similar to the world in these television shows. Functioning under the umbrella of the Cultivation Theory, the studies also initiated cultivation analyses and the identification of cultural indicators that were also deemed to contribute to reality- and perception-formation among television viewers. As Gerbner (1998) explained these processes, the activity was spawned from the previous examinations on how stories, in general, may be formed for the purpose of manufacturing and marketing purposes. Television is therefore seen as an important medium in story-telling, especially how technological innovations seem to have continuously supported the role of the television in the society. As Gerbner’s studies (1998, 1999; Gerbner & Gross, 1984; Gerbner, Gross, Morgan & Signorelli, 1984) have emphasized the role and importance of television, the origins of cultivation found its venue in this particular technology and social tool. This is because media messages can be easily accessed through television, therefore the cultivation of social reality may be based on what the media feeds its viewers. However, as Gerbner (1998) noted, although the television may be an important tool, it merely plays an integral aspect in the overall dynamics of information processes and conception-formation. This is to say that, for instance, a person may be a huge fan of CSI because of its entertainment value, but the same person is also well-aware that what he or she is appreciating is fiction and not necessarily real and factual. Hence, it can be gathered from the cultivation theory that although television plays an integral role, its effect is not absolute as people are continuously exposed to many channels of information and messages (Gerbner, 1998). The cultivation, on one hand, is seen to be more effective is the viewer is experiences a repeated exposure to particular television images (Gerbner & Gross, 1976). The definition of cultivation is thereby defined as â€Å"the independent contributions television viewing makes to viewer conceptions of social reality. The ‘cultivation differential’ is the margin of difference in conceptions of reality between light and heavy viewers in the same demographic sub-groups† (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan and Signorielli, 1994, 23). An analysis towards Gebner’s theory is presented by Hughes (1980) who presented some shortcomings in the studies presented by the former and his colleagues in the context of the effect of violence in television to the perceived reality. The initial cultivation theory studies conducted by Gerbner in the1970s generally made use of the following controls: age, sex and education. Hughes pointed out that there were more factors that could affect the responses of the sample that participated in the General Social Survey such as race and income. This shows that the applicability of the cultivation theory is limited; hence, how television content may cultivate certain conceptions among individuals may be more minimal impact than expected. One of the studies that applied the notion of cultivation theory is a study conducted by Shrum (1999) where the author measured attitude strength and attitude extremity as implications of Gerbner’s cultivation theory. Shrum’s initial approach to the study was to weigh in theories along the lines of Gerbner’s work and its critics such as those presented by Hughes (1980). Basically, the author agreed with the identified shortcomings of Gerbner’s work although the criticisms were mostly based on the process Gerbner and his team used. Shrum also pointed out that one of the probable weaknesses of Gerbner’s work was the identification of the two main categories of samples in addition to the previously identified controls of age, sex and education: participants who were heavy television viewers and those who were light television viewers. The main purpose of Shrum’s study was to evaluate the impact of television towards the attitudes demonstrated. Although Shrum showed that what could limit Gerbner’s work was the issue on the lack of efficient design, the author approached the study in a similar manner — by comparing the results between heavy and light viewers — as a means to identify differences. The categorization between the heavy and the light viewers would prove to be simplistic yet substantial in the author’s approach especially as the samples he used fell in the same demographic categories which were students. The study’s result showed that it reflected Gerbner’s cultivation theory; apparently, heavy television watchers were found to have the tendency to perceive a â€Å"television world† as compared to the light television watchers. The study examined students who watched soap operas, hence, from the results, the sampled heavy viewers were found to have the tendency to experience more distrust and possibly, more marital problems. Shrum (1999) utilized regression approaches and analyses in order to come up with this conclusion. A similar study can be also found in Quick’s (2009) assessment of variation among patient response as based on whether they watch the medical drama Grey’s Anatomy. The study found that patients who heavily watched the show are most likely to have positive associations in terms of their perceptions towards doctors. The perception, according to this study, is not necessarily based on the positive portrayal of the doctors but rather the show was seen as a credible reference to what happens in the hospitals and how doctors can be expected to behave in this space. Hence, despite the presence of both positive and negative portrayals of medical professionals, heavy viewers of this particular show count the courageous and compassionate aspects of the fictional characters, hence, the study found that these patient-viewers have a positive perception towards their physicians. Quick (2009) mentioned, however, that although this context does not necessarily provide harm, the problem is that the sensationalization of the show may further cultivate wrong or high expectations from patients. Quick (2009) further mentioned that the implications of such results can be used to communicate accurate depictions such as, in the case of Grey’s Anatomy, conveying important health-related information. In a sense, by using the fictional channel such as television, viewers are able to be more informed in important issues. This is discussed by Appel (2008) in which the television plays an integral role in just-world beliefs; as Appel mentioned, the cultivation of beliefs can be specially affective among those who heavily watch television. Appel (2008) supported this posit by conducting a comparison study between Austrian and German television viewers; the main purpose of this research was to determine the degree of just-world beliefs among television viewers. The study showed that fictional narratives can change the perceptions of the people, and interestingly, these narratives usually feature a world that is just. Basically, what can be attributed to this impact can be pointed at the content of the program. The effectiveness of these messages in the â€Å"television world† is due to the following factors: the stimulation of moral evaluation paired with the presence of resolution, and at the same time, the entertainment value of these programs (Appel, 2008). This is why, according to the author, heavy television viewers especially those who watch a lot of fictional narratives demonstrate a strong belief in a just-world as compared to viewers of infotainment and non-fiction where belief in the mean-world is seen to be more emphasized. From this, content evidently plays a role in the amount of influence to the viewers, but from this study, the fictional programs are seen to be a more effective venue in changing the beliefs of the viewers. When it comes to content, genre plays a very important role. An important point raised by Cohen and Weinmann (2000) is that the viewers themselves unconsciously â€Å"cultivate† themselves through television because the viewers choose which shows to watch. The selection can be based on many factors, from age, education, sex, personality and even life experiences. Since genres vary as based on content and certain plot norms, it can be gathered that social realities in these contexts also differ. Which is why, according to the authors, the view and representations on the world are not similar, and at the same time, these program contents may also present conflicting perspectives. Hence, in the aspect of cultivation, different attitudes and world-views can be formed; Shrum’s (1999) and Quick’s (2009) studies are only therefore applicable to the specific genres they focused on (soap operas and Grey’s Anatomy, respectively) and the results towards attitudes and viewer response may be different if the study evaluated viewer response towards different shows. Cultivation Theory and the Crime TV Genre When it comes to the cultivation impact in crime genres in television, Dominick (1973) examined Gerbner’s theory specifically his studies in cultivation when it comes to crime- or violence-related shows. Dominick mentioned that prior to Gerbner’s study published in 1972, there were already past studies as to the presence of crime-related shows as found on television. In fact, as the author mentioned, it was found that even in the majority of the television shows in the 1950s demonstrated many programs of this genre, and that law enforcers were already highly stereotyped. Dominick (1973) cited Gerbner’s previous study as a stepping stone to further analyze crime and violence on television; according to the author, Gerbner’s studies, which covered television shows in the later half of the 1960s, showed a significant amount of violence and crime on television yet, in reality, there was the noted decrease in violence among criminals but the law enforcers maintained a certain degree of violence. In reflection, Dominick noted that on television, the law enforcers were seen as the main authoritative figure that always saves the day. Hence, in agreeing with Gerbner’s study, Dominick’s analysis lead to further contribution as to the role of cultivation theory especially as to how the audiences are influenced on their stereotype perceptions, especially in crime- and violence-related shows. Stereotyping seems to be a common element in television crime shows especially as this genre play up certain norms when it comes to the supposed social reality of crime. What is interesting is that racial elements were found to be contributory to these portrayals. For instance, in a study by Dixon (2007), the author noted that responses from heavy television viewers of crime-related programs are most likely the ones to reflect a racial bias in the identification of the perpetrator and the police officer. This shows that even though fact-based programs such as the news present reality, as also adapted in fictional programs, there is the aspect of racialized portrayals. Hence, cultivation in this context has led to certain media imageries that have become a social reality based on the collective perception towards crime racial stereotypes. However, what challenges this is presented by a study conducted by Grabe and Drew (2007) in which the authors examined how crime in the media would actually successfully cultivate specific crime orientations. According to the authors, the study of crime in the media has been a prominent subject in studying cultivation. Grabe and Drew conducted a study among 505 selected adults located in Indiana, and from this, the study concluded that there was a significant variance depending on the many media genres and channels. Hence, the study showed that crime orientation among individuals may not be as strongly influenced by the media especially as viewers have different personal orientations that may affect their own worldviews. This is also reflected by a study executed by Diefenbach and West (2001) in which the authors tested the effect of cultivation theory when it comes to perceptions on violence and crime as seen on television. However, Diefenbach and West also showed results which point at the influence of light versus heavy viewers perceptions. The study showed that projections on crime rates are higher among heavy television viewers. On one hand, it should be also noted that in this study, as the authors pointed out, the samples were limited among the participants from a small North Carolina town with crime rates below the national average. The background of the participants can then be said to factor into perceptions, which is to say, for instance, that projections from samples from a small town may differ from those from the city who have a greater exposure to criminal incidences in their communities. Another variation of a study applying the cultivation theory in crime television is conducted by Heath and Petraitis (1987). According to the study, adapted perceptions projected from the â€Å"television world† were believed to be mostly realistic in distant settings and not in their immediate environment. The study concluded that the fear viewers feel towards crime are more apparent among viewers who see the possibility of such incidents in a distant urban setting rather than in their neighborhood. Basically, based on these applications of the cultivation theory in the crime genre, it can be observed that the varying results are due to the different impacts of many factors. It is evident that one of the crime genre norms is the utilization of stereotyped portrayals which, in the end, does lead the viewers to make certain conclusions thereby affecting their crime orientations. On one hand, other studies further look at the derivatives at the actual effect of crime television exposure among the viewers, and this shows that the cultivation theory is applicable only up to a certain extent. The validity of Gerbner’s cultivation theory still has to rely on the background of the viewers, the relevance of the show’s content to the viewers’ reality, and the amount of media exposure a viewer may have. Hence, it is possible that some viewers demonstrate a quintessential example or a manifestation of Gerbner’s cultivation theory, but as time went on and as can be seen in the more recent cited studies on audience response towards crime television, perceptions in this context are not homogenous. The impact of television towards perception and behavior can then be regarded on a case-to-case basis, especially as audience exposure is no longer limited to the offerings of television, in addition to the fact that there has been also the emergence of sub-genres among many other shows.

Analysis of Chapters 8 and 9 in Paradise of the Blind Essay

Write an analysis of how Chapters 8 and 9 explore the connection between culture, food and community The interdependent connection between culture, food and community is pivotal in the demonstration of the importance Vietnamese tradition in Paradise of the Blind. Chapters eight and nine focus on the importance of culture through family particularly evident in the way food acts as an expression of this culture. Food is also used to establish a sense of community, which is an important aspect in the Vietnamese culture. Food is presented as a direct reflection of a person’s wealth in Vietnamese culture. Limited in other forms of power, women like Aunt Tam can rely on materialistic objects, such as food, in order to display their wealth and earn respect. This is evident as one of the guests at the feast exclaims, â€Å"What a pleasure this evening has been. A sumptuous meal followed by such spellbinding stories. This is a blessing from heaven.† The use of words with strongly positive connotations, such as â€Å"sumptuous† and â€Å"spellbinding† displays the great degree of appreciation and thus importance that food has on Vietnamese culture. This idea is further emphasised with the reference to the Gods and ancestral beings through the use of the word â€Å"heaven†. Another example of food reflecting the idea of wealth is when another guest says, â€Å"A sticky rice flavoured with rose-apple juice! Why, it’s exquisite.† Aunt Tam responds to the compliment, â€Å"Oh please, will you stop it?† The use of the word â€Å"exquisite† again highlights the importance of food and its inherent effectiveness in delivering praise. The way in which Aunt Tam replies, almost rehearsed and clichà ©d, suggests that there was an unspoken expectation of praise and therefore respect in the original intention of the feast. The undeniable connection between food and wealth reflects the material-focused culture of Vietnam. Another idea that connects food to culture is the idea of the sacrifice, particularly in relation to food. Selflessness is a major part of Vietnamese culture and a certain amount of gratification can be achieved through sacrifice, which is shown in these chapters as sacrifice of food. Hang observes that Aunt Tam â€Å"ate almost nothing as if watching me gave her greater pleasure.† Aunt Tam’s sacrifice of her own wellbeing reflects the cultural idea that the strongest link between people is in family. Aunt Tam is willing, even happy to sacrifice her own well-being in order to cater for Hang. This idea of sacrifice can also be linked to the cultural idea of worship and fate, whereby it is believed those who perform good deeds in the present will be rewarded in the future. This idea of selflessness has evidently also affected Hang as she says â€Å"I played the part of the successful niece†¦ I smile dutifully at everyone. My lips stiffened into a permanent smile.† Although Hang is obviously uncomfortable, which can be seen through the use of words such as â€Å"dutifully† and â€Å"stiffened†, she continues to put on a faà §ade of happiness to please her Aunt. This reinforces the cultural idea of the strength of familial ties as well as the importance of sacrifice in solidifying these relationships. The practice of food preparation establishes a sense of community in the chapter. Food preparation appears to have a rehearsed, methodical quality which is evident in the line â€Å"The scene was lively but well-ordered as if all the feverish activity was directed by the iron hand of some invisible conductor.† The simile of the conductor draws a comparison of food preparation to an orchestra, thereby highlighting the importance of group collaboration. Furthermore, the juxtaposition of the â€Å"feverish activity† and its â€Å"well-ordered† nature suggests the idea of controlled chaos. Thus the great amount of activity that is required in the practice of food preparation can only be completed with the cooperation of each individual party. Finally, the unchanging nature of culture is shown to cause conflict within Hang’s character as she is caught in her desire to become a modern woman and her family’s strong links to cultural traditions. Hang describes the countryside as â€Å"Everywhere, an indescribable backwardness hung in the air, immaterial yet terrifyingly present: It would be like this for eternity.† This line suggests not only in restrictive nature of culture but also shows how difficult it is to shake culture. The use of the phrase â€Å"terrifyingly present† highlights the inescapable nature of tradition and the strong bond to which each individual in the book is tied to their traditions. The ideas of food, culture and community are explore in chapters eight and nine, particularly through the ideas of family relationships and its strong links to traditional Vietnamese culture.